Environmental Geochemistry of Copper

Environmental Geochemistry of Copper Nwankwo Chihurumnanya Belema February, 2017 This report was aimed at providing an insight into the environmental geochemistry of copper (Cu). It gave a brief overview of the occurrence of copper and areas in which it is located globally. It went on to discuss its various physical and chemical properties, after which it evaluated the extraction and processing techniques which are used to recover Cu. The diverse uses of Cu in various industries were also looked at, and then the wastes generated during the Cu processing were discussed. The vast routes of Cu pollution in the environment were also analysed, and the toxicity of Cu in humans, animals, aquatic species and micro-organisms were appraised. Lastly, the standards put together to curb Cu exposure and toxicity were equally identified. The quantity of copper beneath the Earths surface is approximately 50 parts per million (ppm) and it occurs as large star-like structures (Emsley, 2011). It takes different natural forms in the likes of cuprite which is a copper(I)oxide mineral, malachite and azurite which are copper carbonates, as well as chalcocite and chalcopyrite which are copper sulphides (McLemore Mullen, 2004). These various copper-bearing minerals and their distinctive copper percentages are shown in Figure 1. It is argued that the distribution of Cu and Zinc (Zn) are quite similar to that of Pb (Lead) (Franklin, Gibson, Jonasson, Galley, 2005), however, further studies show that this is majorly predominant in roadside soils (Bakirdere Yaman, 2008). In the current advancing world, recycling has proven to be a reliable alternate source of copper (Gomez, Guzman, Tilton, 2007). Another key source of copper is skarns, which form by hydrothermal fluid reactions in high temperature igneous environments, usually above 2500C (Hammarstrom, 2002).      Ã‚   Figure 1. Various copper-bearing minerals and their copper percentages (Emsley, 2011). 2.1 EXTRACTION Copper is normally extracted or mined in the form of copper sulphides in 0.4 -1.0% Cu-containing porphyry copper deposits from massive open pit mines (Melchiorre Enders, 2003), as shown in Appendix A-1. Various mining sites of copper around the world include the USA which has the El Chino Mine in New Mexico and the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah, as well as Chuquicamata in Chile (Crowson, 2012). In 2005, the British Geological Survey highlighted that Chile produced about one-third of the worlds copper, making them the top copper producer globally in front of USA, Indonesia and Peru respectively (Nishiyama, 2005) as seen in Appendix A-2. An in-situ heap leaching process is one feasible technique for copper recovery, as most sites in Arizona have implemented this technique with recorded successes (Dreisinger, 2006). Since the inception of copper extraction for thousands of years, the last two decades have accounted for more than half of copper extraction (Martinez-Alier, 2001). It is pro posed that over 1014 tons of copper exists in the Earth crusts top kilometre which could last up to 5 million years based on current extraction rates. Nonetheless, the extraction of these vast reserves of copper is limited by current technologies and prices, making only a little portion of it to be economically feasible to exploit (Camus Dilles, 2001). 2.2 PROCESSING It is typical for the ore in mining operations to be concentrated, thereby making the processing methods to be dependent on the nature of the ore (Sadowski, Jazdzyk, Karas, 2003). Ores like chalcopyrite which are sulphide copper minerals are usually crushed and ground to release the important minerals from the waste, and then beneficiated using mineral flotation (Peng, Grano, Fornasiero, Ralston, 2003). The next process involves smelting the sulphide concentrates in furnaces to yield matte, which is then converted and refined to give anode copper before the last stage of electrolysis comes in (Biswas Davenport, 2013). Due to environmental and economic factors, there is always a reclamation of the by-products during the processing of copper, just like the turning of sulphur dioxide into sulphuric acid (Agrawal, Sahu, Pandey, 2004). Any copper ores which are oxidised during the refining process are treated through hydrometallurgical extraction (Biswas et al, 2013). A flowchart of t he extraction, processing and manufacturing is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. A flowchart illustrating copper extraction, processing and manufacturing (BGS, 2007). 2.3 PROPERTIES Copper is the 29th element on the periodic table in Group 11 with symbol Cu, and it is a ductile, malleable and soft metal that possesses high electrical (59.6106 S/m) and thermal conductivity (401 W/(m.K) (BGS, 2007). Native copper usually has a reddish-orange colour when exposed to air as shown in Figure 3. It has a face-centred cubic crystalline structure, with density of 8.96 g/cm3 at room temperature (Nà ºÃƒ ±ez Aguilar, 2013). This solid element has a boiling point of 2567 0C and melting point of 1083 0C (BGS, 2007). Copper reacts with oxygen when exposed to air to form a protective layer of copper-oxide, which prevents the metal from corrosion, unlike in iron (Fe) (Balamurugan Mehta, 2001). Various alloys of copper exist including brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin), amongst many others (BGS, 2007). Figure 3. Native copper in its natural form (BGS, 2007). 2.4 USES 60% of copper is used for electrical wires and cables, 20% for plumbing and roofing, 15% for industrial equipment and 5% for use as alloys of bronze and brass (Ayres, Ayres, Rà ¥de, 2003) as seen in Figure 4 and Appendix A-3. It is also used as an antibiofouling agent to regulate plant and shellfish growth, and also has antimicrobial function as fungicides and nutritional supplements in the agricultural sector (Pelletier, Bonnet, Lemarchand, 2009). Its use also cuts across folk medicine for bracelets that relieve arthritis, as well as its use for compression clothing suggested to treat certain ailments (Richmond, 2008). It also serves as a wood preservative, musical instruments, especially the brass instruments like gongs and string instruments like guitars and pianos (Sachs, 2012). Its use is also predominant in the beverage industry for distilling spirits like whisky (Lu Gibb, 2008). Figure 4. Various uses of copper in different industries. Data from (CDA, 2016). 2.5 DISCARDING Copper could be recycled from its raw state and also from produced materials, and it ranks as the third most recycled metal behind iron and aluminium as seen in Figure 5 (Agrawal et al., 2004). About 80% of all globally extracted copper is still in use currently, probably because the recycling process is similar to the extraction process, only with the exception of few steps (Biswas et al, 2013). Scrap copper of high purity is melted in a furnace, and afterwards reduced and cast into ingots and billets; while those of lower purity are electroplated in sulphuric acid (BGS, 2007). Certain bacteria like Pseudomonas fluorescens and Chromobacterium violaceum aid in copper degradation (Faramarzi, Stagars, Pensini, Krebs, Brandl, 2004). Figure 5. Discarding of copper in recycling unit (Giordanos Recycling, 2012). 2.6 WASTE Slag wastes, as shown in Figure 6 are usually the by-products after copper refining processes, and the Sarcheshmeh Copper Complex in Iran produces over 370,000 tons of slag waste annually (Khorasanipour Esmaeilzadeh, 2016). These slag wastes are deemed to be multi-elemental contaminants with very high toxicity, and pose anthropogenic risks to the natural environments (Ashley, Lottermoser, Chubb, 2003). However, in weathering environments, their toxicity is somewhat reduced as low soluble glass compounds, oxides and silicates encapsulate them (Khorasanipour et al, 2016). These slags act as environmental contaminants through leaching and weathering processes of potentially toxic elements (Luo, Yu, Zhu, Li, 2012). It is suggested that 1 ton of copper could generate about 2.2 3 tons of slag waste, and worldwide copper slag production is about 24.6 million tons (Hammarstrom, 2002). However, smelting slag wastes serve as useful additives for abrasive, construction and building material s (BGS, 2007). Figure 6. A piece of copper slag waste (CDA, 2016). 2.7 POLLUTION Due to continuous increase in global copper production, more copper ends up in the environment as shown in Figure 7 (BGS, 2007). Wastewater that have copper have been deposited at the river banks while the air has also been polluted with copper through combusting fossil fuels (Luo et al., 2012). These copper held up in the air then fall back as rain, alongside dumped slag waste which then contaminate the soil (Wong, Li, Thornton, 2006). Some natural routes of copper pollution are sea spray, forest fires, decaying vegetation and wind-blown dust (Ashley et al., 2003). Human contributions include mining, as well as phosphate fertilizer, metal and wood production (Raufflet, Barin Cruz, Bres, 2014). Figure 7. Environmental effect of copper pollution (123RF, 2016). 2.8 TOXICITY Copper levels above 2.0 mg/l in drinking water is suggested to be lethal to humans as highlighted in Figure 8, however, this also depends on the source of contamination (Zietz et al., 2003). It could cause eye irritation, lung disease, dermatitis, upper respiratory tract infection, acute renal failure, liver damage and death in humans (Blanusa, et al, 2005). The oligodynamic effect poses toxicity to bacteria in even little levels of copper (Shrestha, et al, 2009). For aquatic species, it affects their nervous system, kidney, liver and gills, as well as their sense of smell which hinders their usual mating process (Kiaune Singhasemanon, 2011). Figure 8. Major symptoms of copper poisoning in the human body (Asian Metal, 2016). 2.9 STANDARDS There are several standards and specifications that are necessary for proper handling and exposure to copper (BGS, 2007). Amongst these are the Unified Numbering System (UNS), as well as ASTM Standard Designation for Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys (CDA, 2016). The permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 1 mg/m3 time-weighted average (TWA) for copper dusts is being set by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), which also tallies with the recommended exposure limit set by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (OSHA, 2016). However, the level that is immediately dangerous to life and health (IDLH) is 100 mg/m3 TWA (Fthenakis, 2003). For copper fumes, the OSHA and NIOSH exposure limits are set at 0.1 mg/m3 TWA (Coble, Lees, Matanoski, 2001), however, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) sets their threshold limits at 0.2 mg/m3 TWA (Cohen Powers, 2000). Copper is normally a reddish-orange polycrystalline, ductile, malleable and soft metal with high electrical and thermal conductivity (Ayres et al., 2003). It could be extracted from various minerals, as well as skarn deposits, landfills, waste dumps and open pit mines (Emsley, 2011). The use of copper also spans across the electrical, architectural, plumbing, industrial, jewelry, agro-allied, microbiological, music and beverage industries (CDA, 2016). The major method through which copper could be discarded is deemed to be recycling, although certain bacteria aid in its mobilization (Agrawal et al., 2004). The processing of copper also involves several stages that cut across crushing, grinding, mineral flotation, smelting, conversion, refining and finally electrolysis (Peng et al., 2003). At the end of these processes, slag wastes are generated and have the potential to cause damage to the environment (Khorasanipour et al, 2016). It has also been found to be very toxic in humans and animals, causing damage to the liver, skin, lungs and kidney (Zietz et al., 2003). To this effect, OSHA and NIOSH are two of many other organizations that have set certain standards and exposure limits to curb its toxic effects (OSHA, 2016). After gaining an understanding of the environmental geochemistry of copper, it can be seen that its exploitation and mining remain very vital for daily activities in various sectors. However, the standards that have been set by OSHA and NIOSH should be taken into consideration to mitigate any environmental and health impacts that may be associated with its exposure. Furthermore, regions with very high copper reserves like Chile should also ensure that mine sites are effectively protected from having direct contact with the environment. References       123RF. (2016). Contaminated mine water pollution of a copper mine exploitation. Retrieved from https://www.123rf.com/photo_24914808_contaminated-mine-water-pollution-of-a-copper-mine-exploitation.html Agrawal, A., Sahu, K., Pandey, B. (2004). Solid waste management in non-ferrous industries in India. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 42(2), 99-120. Ashley, P. M., Lottermoser, B. G., Chubb, A. J. (2003). Environmental geochemistry of the Mt Perry copper mines area, SE Queensland, Australia. Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis, 3(4), 345-357. https://doi.org/10.1144/1467-7873/03-014 Ayres, R. U., Ayres, L. W., Rà ¥de, I. (2003). Copper: Demand and Disposition. In The Life Cycle of Copper, Its Co-Products and Byproducts (pp. 59-100). Springer. Bakirdere, S., Yaman, M. (2008). Determination of lead, cadmium and copper in roadside soil and plants in Elazig, Turkey. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 136(1-3), 401-410. Balamurugan, B., Mehta, B. (2001). Optical and structural properties of nanocrystalline copper oxide thin films prepared by activated reactive evaporation. Thin Solid Films, 396(1), 90-96. BGS. (2007). Copper. Retrieved from www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=1410 Biswas, A. K., Davenport, W. G. (2013). Extractive Metallurgy of Copper: International Series on Materials Science and Technology (Vol. 20). Elsevier. Blanusa, M., Varnai, V. M., Piasek, M., Kostial, K. (2005). Chelators as antidotes of metal toxicity: therapeutic and experimental aspects. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 12(23), 2771-2794. Camus, F., Dilles, J. H. (2001). A special issue devoted to porphyry copper deposits of northern Chile. Economic Geology, 96(2), 233-237. CDA. (2016). Copper Applications. Retrieved from https://www.copper.org/applications/ Coble, J. B., Lees, P. S., Matanoski, G. (2001). Time trends in exposure measurements from OSHA compliance inspections of the pulp and paper industry. Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, 16(2), 263-270. Cohen, H. J., Powers, B. J. (2000). Particle size characterizations of copper and zinc oxide exposures of employees working in a nonferrous foundry using cascade impactors. AIHAJ-American Industrial Hygiene Association, 61(3), 422-430. Crowson, P. (2012). Some observations on copper yields and ore grades. Resources Policy, 37(1), 59-72. Dreisinger, D. (2006). Copper leaching from primary sulfides: Options for biological and chemical extraction of copper. Hydrometallurgy, 83(1), 10-20. Emsley, J. (2011). Natures building blocks: an AZ guide to the elements. Oxford University Press. Faramarzi, M. A., Stagars, M., Pensini, E., Krebs, W., Brandl, H. (2004). Metal solubilization from metal-containing solid materials by cyanogenic Chromobacterium violaceum. Journal of Biotechnology, 113(1), 321-326. Franklin, J. M., Gibson, H., Jonasson, I., Galley, A. (2005). Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits. Economic Geology 100th Anniversary Volume, 98, 523-560. Fthenakis, V. M. (2003). Overview of potential hazards. Practical Handbook of Photovoltaics: Fundamentals and Applications, 2. Giordanos Recycling. (2012). New Jersey Non-Ferrous Metals Recycling Service. Retrieved from http://www.giordanosrecycling.com/non-ferrous-metals.php Gomez, F., Guzman, J. I., Tilton, J. E. (2007). Copper recycling and scrap availability. Resources Policy, 32(4), 183-190. Hammarstrom, J. M. (2002). Environmental geochemistry of skarn and polymetallic carbonate-replacement deposit models. Khorasanipour, M., Esmaeilzadeh, E. (2016). Environmental characterization of Sarcheshmeh Cu-smelting slag, Kerman, Iran: Application of geochemistry, mineralogy and single extraction methods. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 166, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2016.03.015 Kiaune, L., Singhasemanon, N. (2011). Pesticidal copper (I) oxide: environmental fate and aquatic toxicity. In Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Volume 213 (pp. 1-26). Springer. Lu, S., Gibb, S. W. (2008). Copper removal from wastewater using spent-grain as biosorbent. Bioresource Technology, 99(6), 1509-1517. Luo, X., Yu, S., Zhu, Y., Li, X. (2012). Trace metal contamination in urban soils of China. Science of The Total Environment, 421422, 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.04.020 Martinez-Alier, J. (2001). Mining conflicts, environmental justice, and valuation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 86(1), 153-170. McLemore, V. T., Mullen, K. E. (2004). Mineral resources in Taos County, New Mexico. New Mexico Geological Society, Guidebook, 55, 383-390. Melchiorre, E. B., Enders, M. S. (2003). Stable isotope geochemistry of copper carbonates at the Northwest Extension Deposit, Morenci district, Arizona: implications for conditions of supergene oxidation and related mineralization. Economic Geology, 98(3), 607-621. Nishiyama, T. (2005). The roles of Asia and Chile in the world copper market. Resources Policy, 30(2), 131-139. Nà ºÃƒ ±ez Aguilar, C. (2013). Microstructure and properties of copper deformed by accumulative roll-bonding. OSHA. (2016). Copper dusts and mists (as Cu). Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dts/chemicalsampling/data/CH_229300.html Pelletier, É., Bonnet, C., Lemarchand, K. (2009). Biofouling growth in cold estuarine waters and evaluation of some chitosan and copper anti-fouling paints. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 10(7), 3209-3223. Peng, Y., Grano, S., Fornasiero, D., Ralston, J. (2003). Control of grinding conditions in the flotation of chalcopyrite and its separation from pyrite. International Journal of Mineral Processing, 69(1), 87-100. Raufflet, E., Barin Cruz, L., Bres, L. (2014). An assessment of corporate social responsibility practices in the mining and oil and gas industries. Journal of Cleaner Production, 84, 256-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.077 Richmond, S. J. (2008). Magnet therapy for the relief of pain and inflammation in rheumatoid arthritis (CAMBRA): A randomised placebo-controlled crossover trial. Trials, 9(1), 1. Sachs, C. (2012). The history of musical instruments. Courier Corporation. Sadowski, Z., Jazdzyk, E., Karas, H. (2003). Bioleaching of copper ore flotation concentrates. Minerals Engineering, 16(1), 51-53. Shrestha, R., Joshi, D. R., Gopali, J., Piya, S. (2009). Oligodynamic action of silver, copper and brass on enteric bacteria isolated from water of Kathmandu Valley. Nepal Journal of Science and Technology, 10, 189-193. Wong, C. S. C., Li, X., Thornton, I. (2006). Urban environmental geochemistry of trace metals. Environmental Pollution, 142(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.09.004 Zietz, B. P., Dieter, H. H., Lakomek, M., Schneider, H., Keßler-Gaedtke, B., Dunkelberg, H. (2003). Epidemiological investigation on chronic copper toxicity to children exposed via the public drinking water supply. Science of the Total Environment, 302(1), 127-144. APPENDIX A-1. Types of Copper Deposits Source: (BGS, 2007) APPENDIX A-2. TOP COPPER PRODUCING COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD Source: (BGS, 2007) APPENDIX A-3. APPLICATION OF COPPER IN VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL SECTORS Source: (BGS, 2007)      

The Ebola Virus :: Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever

The Ebola Virus INTRODUCTION The most deadly killers on this earth are too small to see with the naked eye. These microscopic predators are viruses. In my report, I will answer many basic questions concerning one of the fastest killing viruses, the Ebola virus. Questions such as "How does it infect its victims?", "How are Ebola victims treated?", "How are Ebola outbreaks controlled?" and many others related to this deadly virus. GENERAL INFORMATION The Ebola virus is a member of the negative stranded RNA viruses known as filoviruses. There are four different strains of the Ebola virus - Zaire (EBOZ), Sudan (EBOS), Tai (EBOT) and Reston (EBOR). They are very similar except for small serological differences and gene sequence differences. The Reston Strain is the only one which does not affect humans. The Ebola virus was named after the Ebola river in Zaire, Africa after its first outbreak in 1976. STRUCTURE When magnified by an electron microscope, the ebola virus resembles long filaments and are threadlike in shape. It usually is found in the form of a "U- shape". There are many 7nm spikes which are 10nm apart from each other visible on the surface of the virus. The average length and diameter of the virus is 920nm and 80nm. The virons are highly variable in length (polymorphic), some attaining lengths as long as 14000nm. The Ebola virus consists of a helical nucleocapsid, which is a protein coat and the nucleic acid it encloses, and a host cell membrane, which is a lipoprotein unit that surrounds the virus and derived form the host cell's membrane. The virus is composed of 7 polypeptides, a nucleoprotein, a glycoprotein, a polymerase and 4 other undesignated proteins. These proteins are synthesized by mRNA that are transcribed by the RNA of the virus. The genome consists of a single strand of negative RNA, which is noninfectious itself. The order of it is as follows: 3' untranslated region, nucleoprotein, viral structured protein, VP35, VP40 glycoprotein, VP30, VP24, polymerase(L), 5' untranslated region. HOW IT INFECTS Once the virus enters the body, it travels through the blood stream and is replicated in many organs. The mechanism used to penetrate the membranes of cells and enter the cell is still unknown. Once the virus is inside a cell, the RNA is transcribed and replicated. The RNA is transcribed, producing mRNA which are used to produce the virus' proteins. The RNA is replicated in the cytoplasm and is mediated by the synthesis of an antisense positive RNA strand which serves as a template for producing additional Ebola genomes. As the infection progresses, the cytoplasm develops "prominent inclusion bodies" which means that

The Extinction of Penguins

Emperor Penguins have been around for millions of years. Although they are a type of bird they can not fly. They walk, slide on their stomachs, or swim. They can swim up to nine kilometers an hour. That is faster than an average person can run. Emperor Penguins can hold their breath over twenty minutes and dive over eighteen hundred feet. Another interesting fact about them is that they show no aggression towards humans. The real question is though whether or not Emperor Penguins are on their way to extinction? Some of the reasons why we may think this would be climate change, depletion in food supply, pollution, tagging, and their predators. Climate change is the reason for the Emperor Penguin population to decline by fifty percent over the past fifty years. Penguins use the ice to escape from predators, and to raise their chicks. A temperature increase of 2. 1 degrees Celsius will jeopardize forty percent of the world’s Emperor Penguins. When the ice melts before the chicks have matured and grown their waterproof feathers, chicks that are swept into the ocean are likely to die. If the ice isn’t sturdy enough to last until when the chicks are ready to head out to sea, they aren’t going to be able to raise them. The loss of sea ice for adult penguins can lead to lower food availability, which can result in increased mortality. In Antarctica an Emperor colony has declined from 250 pairs to 10 pairs since 1960, due to rapid loss of the sea ice. Since global climate change has been causing the rapid melting of sea ice, the amount of krill in the southern oceans has decreased in recent years. Krill in which many penguins feed upon, survive by feeding off the algae which forms on the underside of the sea ice. So the reduction in sea-ice which has resulted from climate change has meant there has been much less food for penguins to eat. If this continues to happen the Emperor Penguin population is going to keep on declining. Over fishing of krill, and fish is another factor in helping penguins become extinct. It is putting pressure on food chains and food availability for penguins. Industrial fisheries deplete the penguins’ food supply and entangle and drown the penguins in longlines and other destructive fishing gear. The more fish and krill being caught by humans the less food there is for penguins to be able to eat. Ocean acidification which is caused by the absorption of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the oceans is also harming penguins. Plankton is a major part of the food chain for many fish on which penguins feed. As gases are absorbed into the oceans, they become less hospitable places for plankton and other organisms to live which is less food penguins have to eat. Oil pollution kills tens of thousands of penguins annually. The oil destroys the natural water repellent on their feathers, causing the birds to become vulnerable to hypothermia. Penguins also consume the oil while trying to groom, poisoning them and causing internal organ damage. The oil also kills the penguins’ food and poisons the penguins when trying to eat contaminated fish. The banding of penguins is another issue contributing to the declining population of penguins. The first evidence that flipper bands might be causing damage to penguins came in the 1970s. Zoos reported that the bands would wound penguins’ flippers, especially during the yearly molt, when flippers enlarge. Over a ten year period, banded penguins produced thirty-nine percent fewer chicks and had a sixteen percent lower survival rate than unbanded birds. Banded penguins also had less time and energy to reproduce and care for their young because they spent more time searching for food and provisions and arrived more than two weeks late to breeding areas. The penguins wearing bands expend twenty-four percent more energy while swimming and attract the attention of predators. Rory Wilson, an ecologist at Swansea University said the extra baggage likely increased the drag penguins experienced and impaired their athletic ability.

Residential car Essay

In this assignment we will discuss Residential care as a system of care provision in the Ireland. We will also discuss how the intervention may be of support to clients and the different theoretical approaches used. We will list the pros and cons of residential care and discuss the differences between the Private, Public and Voluntary sectors. Although it is generally in the best interest of the child for him or her to be brought up by their own family, it is not always possible as a child’s welfare and safety is paramount to their wellbeing. Residential care is described as care for children who can no longer be cared for by their family in their own home. This may also happen in the case of a child who has been abandoned or orphaned. Where parents are unable to cope due to illness or other problems they may agree to their children being taken into the care of the Health Service Executive (HSE.ie). Residential care refers to care that can be provided in a home (for children i n the care of the HSE) staffed by Care Staff. The home or centre is referred to as a children’s residential centre. Residential care may be provided in a HSE run children’s residential centres. Care may also be provided by voluntary organizations on a not for profit basis. In recent years, organizations also provide residential care for young people on a for profit basis. Under the Child Care Act 1991 residential centres have to be registered and inspected by health boards. Centre’s managed directly by the HSE are inspected by the Social Services Inspectorate (SSI) and those centres in the voluntary sector and contracted to the HSE are inspected by nominated appropriate personal. The recent development of the private sector provision of residential centres follows the similar registration and inspection requirements of the voluntary sector. (Lecture notes) The purpose of residential care is to provide a safe, nurturing environment for individual children and young people who cannot live at home or in an alternative family environment. It aims to meet in a planned way the physical, educational, emotional, spiritual, health and social needs of each child. This may include ; working with a young person’s Social Worker and other professionals to prepare a young person for a successful return home, working with a young person’s Social Worker and other professionals to prepare a young person for a successful transition to an agreed placement of choice, working with a young person’s Social Worker and other professionals to prepare a young person for a  successful transition to independent / supported living (Institute of Child Protection Studies) There are many different ways in which residential care can support a child in care. Keyworking is the provision of individualised care for each young person through a named member of the centre’s staff team. While a keyworker is not solely responsible for the care of the young person it is their responsibility to co-ordinate and ensure that the team focus is on progressing the young person’s care plan and the young person’s life in the centre. It is also crucial that the welfare and best interests of resident young people are of paramount consideration in all aspects of the care provided and that the young people in care are provided with an opportunity to feel safe, secure and protected from harm in an environment where they can be sure their primary needs will be met. Childcare act 1991 offers many approaches to meeting the needs of children and their families. Examples of these approaches include emergency care, assessment, short and long term care, respite care also to provide families in difficulty (Child Care Regulations 1996). There are s everal different theoretical approaches used in residential care.’ A therapeutic intervention is an intentional interaction(s) or event(s) which is expected to contribute to a positive outcome for a child or young person, which is selected on the basis of his/her identiï ¬ ed needs, and which is underpinned by an informed understanding of the potential impact and value of the interaction/event involved’ (Best Practice Guidelines) Attachment theory is an extremely important example. Where children who are placed in the child welfare system have not experienced a secure base with their primary carers it is essential that social care practitioners aim to form this quality of relationship with them which is what is meant by the provision of a ‘second chance secure base’. A secure base is a relationship within which a child or youth feels safe, nourished both physically and emotionally, where s/he is comforted when distressed, reassured when frightened. Aristotle argued that happiness for humans is not possible in the absence of reciprocal, affective relationships or friendships (Sherman 1991). Such relationships for children are only possible in the context of satisfactory attachments which provide for them a secure base from which to explore their environment (Bowlby 1988). Attachment theory emphasises that continuity and sensitive responses to youth in care are key features of the environment of care-giving (Rutter  & O’ Connor 1999). Due to persistent relationship problems and patterns, care staff offering a good relationship may not be enough. There may be a need to actively identify abusive relating and encourage and model alternatives. Important principles are: modelling; rewards rather than punishments; and natural consequences and consistently applied limits (Morton et al., 1999, p. 57). Social learning theory together with trauma and non-violence theory can form the basis of models which see the whole environment as a therapeutic agent (Abramovitz & Bloom, 2003). A social care worker needs to have a variety of skills and qualities when working in a residential home with vulnerable clients. The care worker needs to be open minded and non-judgemental, a good listener, patient, be able to work as part of a team, be understanding and must be flexible and be able to work under pressure or adapt to any changes quickly. Like every situation or care setting there are always pros and cons. The pros of residential care include: Residential Care is seen as a secure environment. Children get to build relationships with others Regulated by HSE to ensure the best possible care and services are given Activities are arranged The child’s needs are met and there is consistent care givenThe Cons of a residential care setting include: The child may feel neglected or unwanted and see themselves as being institutionalised. Often required to do things at set times May not always have a choice who they share rooms with and may not be compatible Limited living space and private space  A good care provider may not be good at property management and maintenance and vice versa (housingoptions.org.uk) Residential homes are operational under the three sectors which are public, private and voluntary. The public sector is defined as the whole of the activities, organisations, institutions or services, for which the state or its representatives can be regarded as the employer, and whereby the organisation, the goals and the operation thereof are determined by public authorities and underpinned by public funding.( www.eurofound.europa.eu) The Private Sector is the part of the economy that is not fully state controlled  and is run by individuals or groups of people. In the case of residential homes an example of a private run care home is Daffodil Care services. Although this is a private run service it is still monitored by the Health Service Executive. The final sector is the voluntary sector, which has ‘pioneered the provision of services, with the state becoming involved in a supportive role at a later stage’. In many instances voluntary organisations supplement the b asic services provided by the state. Depending on the type of activity engaged in, there are different sources of funding for voluntary organisations. These include the European Social Fund and Lottery Funding. The main sources of recurrent funds for the majority of voluntary organisations providing welfare services are health boards. Section 65 of the Health Act, 1953 provides that health authorities may support organisations providing services similar to those of the health authority. (Curry 2003) Conclusion In conclusion to this assignment we have discussed Residential Care as a whole and shows how theoretical approaches are used and also gives us a clear understanding of the three different sectors. Residential care will always be needed in society to ensure the care for children who may not have any other options or resources available. Reference List: Curry, J (2003). Irish Social Services, 4th ed. Dublin : British Library Best practice guidelines(2009)best practice guidelines for the use and implementation of therapeutic interventions for children and young people in out of home care [online] available:http://www.caab.ie/Publications/PDFs—Publications/Guidance-Documents/CAAB-Best-Prac-Guide-hteraputice-Inter.aspx[6th December 2011]. Evergreenconsultantsinhumanbehaviour[online]http://attachmenttherapy.com/adult.htm[6th December 2011].

Critical Lens the Odyseey and Ithaka

Ms. Zivas Critical Lens According to an unknown author, â€Å"It is not what an author states, but what he or she whispers that is important. † In other words, every detail in every book or work of literature has a more complex meaning than what is on the paper. Two works that prove this quote true are The Odyssey by Homer and â€Å"Ithaka† by Constantine Cavafy. The Odyssey by Homer is a metaphor for life. â€Å"It is the journey that makes up your life† as said by Tiresias, a blind prophet in The Odyssey. There are many life lessons or lessons learned in this work.For example, in the episode The Lotus Eaters, the lesson Homer meant to teach his listener was to resist temptations. Another lesson Homer meant to teach was that temptations can lead to danger. This was said in The Sirens episode. Life is a long but interesting path. One will never know what might happen. All of the creatures or characters in The Odyssey represent an obstacle someone might face in li fe. As said before, The Odyssey by Homer is a metaphor for life. â€Å"Ithaka† by Constantine Cavafy represents the road to death or the destination.In life, one can conquer any obstacle. This was portrayed in this poem. â€Å"Ithaka† was also used to explain that life should be lived to its fullest. The reader should get the experience to learn about foreign sensual learning. â€Å"Ithaka† provided its reader with an exciting and helpful story which had many moral lessons to be taught. The quote â€Å"It is not what an author states, but what he or she whispers that is important† really describes that the authors of both work of literature write more than what is on the paper. There is another story behind every book or poem.

History the world Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

History the world - Essay Example The early human communities were dependent on the nature for food as they were hunters and gatherers. The early settlements were sparse as compared to the new age due to numerous hunters present, and the game would not suffice. In addition, they would fish for their food along water bodies within their proximity. Their tools were of basic materials such as rocks and wood. They also acquired a language through which they would communicate, and developed the ability to use it in order to pass on what they had learnt. The early cultures were vulnerable to wild beasts and natural disasters, which may have developed enormous fear of the unknown forces of nature, these uncertainties of human life established religious beliefs and practices in an effort to preserve themselves from the unknown forces (The birth of civilisation 2). As the clock turned, the early man’s tools grew more complex and advance, and were more precise. These advancements lead to domestication of plants and animals, meaning that people could move to areas where these plants and animals did not naturally occur. The communities explored other areas such as valleys and riverbeds allowing their expansion and creating room for more advancement. The farmers also built dwellings that are more permanent in an effort to care for their crops from the planting season to harvesting. Along the riverbeds, pottery was acquired, illustrating the beginning of specialisation. Communities can be distinguished from each other owing to the level of social complexity and organisation, as well as their vast economic and cultural activities. For instance, the earliest of civilisations in Mesopotamia would use rivers for irrigation in the fields, which was not observed in other regions. This ensured sufficient food production for the community who would engage in other

THE LAW OF TORT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

THE LAW OF TORT - Essay Example is any act, omission, establishment, business, condition of property, or anything else which: (a) Injures or endangers the health or safety of other; or (b) Annoys or offends the senses; or (c) Shocks, defies or disregards decency or morality; or (d) Obstructs or interferes with the free passage of any public highway or street, or any body of water; or (e) Hinders or impairs the use of property. The nature of nuisance is nuisance per se or at law or nuisance per accidens or in fact. The scope of a nuisance can be public, private or mixed. Nuisance per se (nuisance at law) is an act, occupation, or structure which is a nuisance at all times and under any circumstances, regardless of location or surroundings. Whereas, nuisance per accidens (nuisance in fact) is one that becomes a nuisance by reason of circumstances and surroundings. Public nuisances causes hurt, inconvenience, or injury to the public, generally, or to such part of the public as necessarily comes in contact to it. While a private nuisance is one which violates only private rights and produces damages to but one or a few people. The liability of the creator of the nuisance as a general rule is that he who creates a nuisance is liable for the resulting damages and ordinarily, his liability continues as long as the nuisance continues. It implies therefore that the person whose duty it is to abate a nuisance should answer for the consequences resulting from its continuance. No one is to be held liable for a nuisance which he cannot All persons who join or participate in the creation or maintenance of a nuisance are liable solidarily. The abatement of a nuisance does not preclude the right of any person injured to recover damages for the past existence. Lapse of time cannot legalize any nuisance, whether public or private. The creation and maintenance of a public nuisance is punishable criminally hence, the element of criminality, which characterizes the acts of creating the nuisance, should